Samantha Chinyoka is a Renewable Energy Engineer currently working as the Projects Director for a green energy company in Zimbabwe. She holds a Master’s degree in Electrical Engineering and Renewable Energy Systems from the University of Leeds, U.K.
Samantha is passionate about addressing equity and climate change through renewable-based energy transitions. She also has a keen interest in climate and energy policymaking, particularly in the role it plays in supporting low-carbon economic growth. At present, she is a member of the Global Women’s Network for the Energy Transition and youth climate action groups, the YOUNGO@UNFCCC and the UN-MGCY SDG7 Youth Constituency.
When Samantha is not working, you’ll find her volunteering for charity. She particularly enjoys mentoring young people living in institutionalised homes, helping them realise their potential, to raise their aspiration levels, and prepare them for life after the institution.
Fun fact: She has a thing for good, quality chocolate.
Tasmin Grant is an editor for Earth Refuge and manages the Archive: a collection of submissions that encapsulate the realities of climate migration.
She is also the Managing Editor for one of the largest global digital coffee publications, alongside studying at the London School of Journalism.
Tasmin has been working in the coffee industry for over 6 years, so while the world of climate justice is still relatively new to her, she hopes to utilise her editing skills to assist Earth Refuge with its mission of advocating for the rights of climate migrants.
When she’s not working, Tasmin enjoys discovering new music, cooking delicious vegan food, exploring London, and spending time with her beloved wife.
Nikoleta sees over all teams as part of the strategic & organisational leadership at Earth Refuge. She sets long-term priorities and monitors their execution, while also assisting project management across departments. Having a strong international law background, Nikoleta firmly believes in the power of contemporary legal solutions and is excited about Earth Refuge’s tangible impact.
Apart from Earth Refuge, Nikoleta works in the legal team of a global climate leadership network. She cares about making law & policy digestible and pursued this as lecturer for the European Commission and president of a diplomacy NGO. Currently, she is leading the International Institute of Space Law’s latest initiative, the Knowledge Constellation, making space law accessible for all.
Nikoleta holds an MA in Human Rights from UCL, where she was recognised in the Dean’s List for Academic Excellence. She is passionate about gender equality and appreciates great films, lyrics, fashion, and chocolate.
Alongside executive duties, Yumna spearheads our Legal Advocacy project –– conducting legal research for live cases featuring elements of climate migration and raising the international legal community’s awareness for the issue –– all of which sets the foundation for Earth Refuge’s future social impact litigation.
Yumna is also the Legal Education Officer at Right to Remain, where she works on resources about the UK asylum and immigration system, including the Right to Remain Toolkit. She delivers legal workshops and collaborates with asylum and migrant groups across the country.
She was called to the Bar of England & Wales in 2020 and obtained a Public Interest LLM fellowship from the University of Pennsylvania Law School.
Outside of work, Yumna (really) loves to eat, create, and talk about food. If she weren’t in the legal field, she’d be a chef.
Lauren Grant holds an MA in Human Rights from the Legal Studies Department of Central European University and an International Human Rights Defender Certificate from the Foundations of Human Rights Protection in Constitutional and International Law postgraduate specialisation programme. She is a graduate of the Zoryan Institute’s Genocide and Human Rights University Program, and is currently pursuing an MSc in Violence, Conflict, and Development at SOAS University of London.
At Earth Refuge and beyond, Lauren’s research and advocacy spans the fields of climate-induced displacement, women’s, Indigenous and minority rights, violence, conflict, genocide, and development. In 2022, she founded the world’s first International School on Climate Migration, a five-week long summer school co-hosted by Earth Refuge and the SOAS Department of Development Studies.
In her free time, Lauren enjoys reading, diving into deep and explorative discussion over a cup of coffee, and soaking up the sunshine with her adored wife.
Adrian Yeung is a public policy professional based in Melbourne, Australia, and a University of Melbourne graduate with specialisations in political science, international business, and media & communications. He hopes to bring his professional experience in government, marketing, and consulting to help Earth Refuge generate awareness and build a movement around the critical issue of climate migration.
Outside of work, Adrian is the producer of The Story Symphony, a collaborative audio drama podcast with each chapter of the story written by an entirely different person – meaning that neither the audience nor the writers know what’s going to happen next. He also dabbles in music production, freelance writing, career mentoring, and even had a brief stint acting on community television.
Over the past few decades, it appears that meaningful international action towards mitigating climate change has been hard to come by. Even less ground has been covered when addressing the increasingly prevalent issues around climate migration. If no action is taken, the World Bank estimates that more than 143 million people will be displaced by 2050 – largely impacting the most marginalized and disadvantaged global communities.[1]
Climate change is defined as a “wicked problem” – so vast and complex that it seems impossible to resolve due to the multiple interdependent factors at play.[2] However, one simple overarching principle is necessary if we, as an interdependent world, are to bring about justice for those affected and displaced by climate change: empathy.
Why Should Policymakers Apply Empathy?
Applying empathy to climate change policy is a fundamental starting place [3], especially if world leaders hope to move beyond the political tug-of-war to establish long-term climate justice. Without it, they are likely to develop approaches that only benefit countries in the Global North in the short-term.[4]
There is a surprisingly simple theoretical concept that could be used by world leaders to apply empathy in their decisions on climate change policy. This concept is so intuitive that my daughters use it without any prompts. When they pull the last coveted cookie from the jar, they instinctively understand the fairness in one of them cutting the cookie while the other chooses which half to take. When she who holds the knife doesn’t know which half she will get, she is incentivized to make the split as even as possible. Cut the left side larger, and she is sure to be stuck with the smaller right side when her sister gets the first pick.
This basic concept has been the subject of the late 20th century political philosopher John Rawls, who defines it as the “original position”[5]. Rawls believed that when dealing with a specific issue, the decision maker is behind a “veil of ignorance”, because when determining the most effective path forward they are not sure which end of the policy they will ultimately be on, nor the timeframe over which the issue may occur. Cut the cookie unequally, and they could be left with the smaller half once the veil is lifted and their position is revealed.
When it comes to climate change in particular, the veil becomes so opaque that it even obscures important external factors. This is especially true when considering the extent to which various geographical regions will be affected by climate change, despite recent advancements in scientific models which can predict these factors[6]. So how might the effects of climate change develop over time?
Looking Beyond the Veil
With these unknown issues at play, the application of Rawls’ thought experiment becomes somewhat more clear. Climate policy makers represent different countries from around the world, with some of those countries being destinations for migrants, while others are the heavily affected locations those migrants must leave behind. As they come together, these policy makers are faced with a question they have never comprehensively addressed: under what circumstances should migrants whose own home countries have been made unlivable as a result of rising sea levels, unbearable temperatures, or drought be allowed entry into lesser-affected countries?
Immigration is a heated political topic for many countries in the Global North, including the United States [7], with policymakers facing intense scrutiny from all sides. In order to apply Rawl’s original position framework, the policymaker has to decide on an appropriate policy without truly knowing which position they will occupy – either at present or in the future. While it might seem politically desirable for the receiving country to limit climate-induced migration, the decision maker might find that once the veil is lifted, they may also be in the same position as the migrant at some point in time. Placing oneself on both sides of the situation, especially before adopting any appropriate policies, is crucial to achieving a just result.
Further complicating this dilemma are the inherent quirks within the human response of empathy. For one, humans have a tendency to worry more about today than tomorrow, even though our children will live in the tomorrow which we shape.[8] Moreover, we paradoxically feel more moved to help a single person in need, but when large groups of people are in danger, our empathy and compassion can “collapse”.[9]Ultimately, this could mean that climate change decision makers are working against their own natural impulses. They are tasked with establishing policy to protect populations in the long-term, which in the Global North can be perceived as protecting large, faceless groups of people from other parts of the world.
However, studies have shown some success in overcoming this empathy gap, mainly by viewing climate change through a political lens, as opposed to a purely scientific one.[10] This feels unsatisfying, because many believe the biggest barrier to meaningful progress is precisely a political one.[11] It is far from clear how to overcome this political will issue but the answer lies at the heart of pushing toward empathetic policy.
Undoubtedly, world leaders will always prioritize the countries they represent in these policy decisions, but all of humanity would be better served if these leaders sought out more empathy-based solutions. Although it is mostly those in the Global North who occupy habitable environments today, if the veil right in front of them is lifted, they may find that it is themselves who also need to seek a new home tomorrow.
Sara Sam-Njogu is a second year law student at Western New England University School of Law. She is a clinician in the International Human Rights Clinic where she studies climate change, climate migration, and how corporations interact with these important issues. Prior to law school, Sara worked in sales and marketing strategy for consumer goods manufacturers. She lives in Longmeadow, MA with her husband and two daughters.
David is a student at Stanford Law School in Palo Alto, California, passionate about anything at the intersection of migration, workers’ rights, and climate justice. He has worked in tech, asylum law, and, in the summer of 2022 with Centro de los Derechos del Migrante, a migrant workers’ rights organization. With Earth Refuge, he writes, edits, and publishes case summaries for the Legal Database. David loves being part of this international, intersectional team and hopes to meet some of his collaborators someday!
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has updated climate change data on its website for the first time in 5 years. The data is presented on the Climate Change Indicators website, the website allows the public to explore data generated primarily by federal agencies on climate change and its impact on people throughout the U.S. The first Climate Change Indicators report was published by the EPA in 2010, and the data was regularly updated on its website until the Trump administration in 2016. During his presidency, Donald Trump was openly sceptical of human-caused climate change, at times calling it a “hoax”.
The recent data presented in the Climate Change Indicators report illustrates the alarming reality of the impact of climate change across the U.S. Surface temperatures across the U.S. are rising, and that increase is accelerating. This temperature increase is the most pronounced in Alaska, which saw an average temperature rise of more than 2°C in parts, since 1925. Rising temperatures are also worsening wildfires, according to the new data. Wildfire season is starting earlier, lasting longer, and the amount of land burned each year by wildfires is increasing. Heatwaves have also become more common due to increasing surface temperatures, with occurrences tripling in U.S. cities since the 1960s. Drought is growing in the Southwest, which in turn threatens the availability of drinking water.
Coastal flooding is five times more common in cities across the U.S. today compared to in the 1950s. A combination of melting of polar ice and rising water temperatures are the cause of the flooding, with sea level rising being particularly prominent along the East Coast and Gulf Coast. The new data also shows that incidents of lyme disease have doubled since 1991, as a warming climate across the U.S. is leading to deer ticks being able to survive in an increasing number of areas.
The global cryptocurrency revolution has reached an all-time high with people actively involved in cryptocurrency investing. The idea of a decentralized currency without privacy concerns has been the key factor behind the growing popularity of these digital currencies. This has been acknowledged by institutions like Deutsche Bank, which anticipates that by 2030 digital currencies will have over 200 million users and could eventually replace cash one day. Another major factor that propels the success of already popular cryptocurrency is its portrayal as a ‘greener’ alternative to traditional cash and its potential to evolve into a global currency. However, Elon Musk stirred global controversy when he questioned the environmental impact of cryptocurrencies, and subsequently declined to accept Bitcoin for Tesla payments.
The exchange rate of Bitcoin has fallen drastically, due to subsiding hype and excitement, the prevalence of common sense, and the global audience shifting their attention to how much energy is actually consumed by these cryptocurrencies. The potential conflict between these ‘future global currencies’ and the efforts being made towards ‘a sustainable future’ is intriguing. This article attempts to understand this potential conflict through a detailed analysis of the energy consumed by cryptos, its incompatibility with the idea of a sustainable future, and the challenges it poses to a greener tomorrow.
Cryptocurrency Mining and Energy Consumption
Cryptocurrencies, unlike the traditional banking system of maintaining account balances in a central database, make use of a distributed network of ‘miners’. These are a network of specialized computers that keep a record of new and constantly added blocks. A computational race exists between these miners to earn incentives, and as such blocks can only be recorded by solving cryptographic puzzles. Incentives or bonuses are only given to the recording miner. While on the one hand this assures a fail-proof system, on the other, it requires huge computational power. This mining process tends to lose efficiency due to the rising prices of the cryptocurrencies, because the mathematical puzzles to create blocks become more complex and require more computation power to keep the number of transactions constant. This means more computing power and energy is being consumed per block to process the same number of transactions in the face of the increasing complexity of the puzzles.
As per recent research by the University of Cambridge which aims to create a Bitcoin electricity consumption index, it has been estimated that the miners of Bitcoin alone are going to consume 130 Terawatt-hours of energy (TWh). This energy is close to 0.5% of global electricity consumption. Just like any other conventional source of energy, electricity has its fair share of carbon emission issues. Using the standard global scale, such an amount of electricity usage would put the Bitcoin economy on par – in terms of carbon dioxide emissions – with a small developing nation. It is also interesting to note that 65% of Bitcoin mining takes place in China, where the major source of electricity generation is coal burning. Many other countries around the world are primarily dependent on coal and fossil fuels for electricity generation. This is even more concerning as coal burning is a significant contributor to climate change, owing to the high carbon emission rates associated with it. An alarming report by CNBC suggests that Bitcoin alone produces 35.95 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions every year.
The Paris Agreement and Sustainable Development Goals
Under Article 2(c) of the UN Paris Agreement (a legally binding international treaty on climate change adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris on 12 December 2015) every signatory is obligated to make attempts to hold global temperatures within 2°C above pre-industrial levels. This agreement also reflects the understanding that the future of international finance must include a to switch to low greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, the signatories that allow for such crypto-mining to continue are directly violating the agreement. Furthermore, the central idea of the agreement was to enable modern technology to be utilized in a way that mitigates greenhouse gas emissions to the highest standard possible. The highly polluting use of technology, such as that discussed above, would be in stark contravention of the spirit of the agreement.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a global agenda which was adopted by countries in 2015 with a vision to end poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 SDGs and 169 targets are part of what is known as ‘the 2030 Agenda’ which recognizes that “eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for sustainable development”. Usage of cryptocurrencies directly contradicts these goals which were formulated to ensure a sustainable and better future for humanity. They directly go against SDGs 7, 9, 11, and 12 which deal with ensuring affordable and clean energy, industry, innovation and infrastructure, creating sustainable cities, and responsible consumption and production respectively.
The Solution: Revamping the Crypto-Model
The analysis of the various reports and the due examination of the crypto energy consumption pattern highlights that the seemingly ‘green’ currency actually has a huge carbon footprint. The present generation of the human race, in its efforts to tackle global climate change, has been constantly trying to transition towards more energy-efficient technology. Millions of dollars are being poured into research and development to come up with sustainable and green technology. On the face of this, the growing popularity of cryptocurrencies can be seen as a major setback because, in their present state, they endanger the future of human civilization.
With global temperatures increasing, we have seen a fresh rise in global warming-related issues. Whether it be as a result of untimely flooding or pre-season blooming, the very existence of human life is being threatened. People are forced to leave their homelands because of climate stressors. It is ironic that the currency which promised to, in a way, mitigate the challenges of the global climate crisis has itself become one of its major causes. The energy consumption of these cryptocurrencies and the hope of a sustainable future are antagonist pairs; neither can live while the other survives. The key lies not in the complete abandonment of cryptos but a gradual transition to more energy-efficient ways of mining them.
Whether you’re in favor of cryptocurrencies or against them, there is little doubt that these blockchain-based currencies use enormous amounts of energy. Much of this energy usage comes from burning coal and other fossil fuels, although cryptocurrency advocates have argued that renewable sources are also a major component. While the exact figures are disputed, even the best-case scenarios indicate that mining is a major factor in carbon dioxide emissions. Thus, the question that naturally follows is: do we abandon the cryptocurrency framework? The answer to this question is tricky. While there is no denying that cryptocurrencies in their present state of operation are a great threat to the idea of sustainability, there have been recent developments of alternate cryptos which are more promising and less energy-consuming. For instance, Ripple (XRP) consume only 0.0079 KWh per transaction – this is highly power-efficient when compared to Bitcoins. Further, new forms of energy-efficient crypto mining are being introduced.
Cryptocurrencies, in their current form, are not only highly inefficient, but their continued usage can pose considerable danger to the future of humans. There is more than one solution to the problem: from devising a better mining strategy, to transitioning towards greener energy for mining. The entire concept is so nascent that hardly any academic debate or scientific report available could suggest concrete plans. However, looking at the growing popularity of cryptos, it is pertinent to note that there indeed exists a problem and the need of the hour lies not in ignoring it, but rather starting a meaningful discussion to come up with better strategies to effectively tackle it.
Raj Shekhar is a law student at National University of Study and Research in Law, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India. He is the current Future Leaders India (Political Strategy) Fellowship holder.
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